how many men would have considered the possibility of an apple falling up into the tree？ newton did because he was not trying to predict anything. he was just wondering. his mind was ready for the unpredictable. unpredictability is part of the essential nature of research. if you dont have unpredictable things， you dont have research. scientists tend to forget this when writing their cut and dried reports for the technical journals， but history is filled with examples of it.
the author asserts that scientists.
[a]shouldnt replace“scientific method”with imaginative thought
shouldnt neglect to speculate on unpredictable things
[c]should write more concise reports for technical journals
[d]should be confident about their research findings[1999年第68题]
b[正确答案]
“关键词替换”是出现最频繁的命题方式，几乎每年都有一些用这种方式设置的题目。
例
this speeding up of life， says the futurist， receives a new form of expression.
总则中笔者介绍了考研阅读理解应试的基本步骤，下面将就具体题型提出相应的应试原则 二、主题原则
主旨题型又叫主题原则，主要针对文章主题设问，考查考生对通篇文章的理解和把握，但是要特别注意和下面这种题型区分开来。
笔者建议考生在做主题题型时遵循这样的原则：因为此类题干扰性最大，难度也最大，考生须读完全文才能准确把握文章主题。所以考生拿到这种题时，不要急于去找答案，不论其出现在什么位置都把它作为最后一道题来做，因为在做另外三道题时，无疑有助于加深对整个文章的理解。而且，事实上，首先做主旨题，考生往往还会回过头来核查答案，这样耗时间，做题效率低。
主题题型分为以下两种。
1.明确的主题题型
此类题型位置较为固定，一般是第一个问题或最后一个问题，要求考生为文章选择合适的标题或是总结文章的中心思想。此类题型相对难度较小。
例
if you intend using humor in your talk to make people smile，you must know how to identify shared experiences and problems. your humor must be relevant to the audience and should help to show them that you are one of them or that you understand their situation and are in sympathy with their point of view. depending on whom you are addressing，the problems will be different. if you are talking to a group of managers，you may refer to the disorganized methods of their secretaries；alternatively if you are addressing secretaries，you may want to comment on their disorganized bosses.
here is an example，which i heard at a nurses convention，of a story which works well because the audience all shared the same view of doctors. a man arrives in heaven and is being shown around by st. peter. he sees wonderful accommodations，beautiful gardens，sunny weather，and so on. everyone is very peaceful，polite and friendly until，waiting in a line for lunch，the new arrival is suddenly pushed aside by a man in a white coat，who rushes to the head of the line，grabs his food and stomps over to a table by himself.“who is that？”the new arrival asked st. peter.“oh，thats god”came the reply，“but sometimes he thinks hes a doctor.”
if you are part of the group which you are addressing，you will be in a position to know the experiences and problems which are common to all of you and itll be appropriate for you to make a passing remark about the inedible canteen food or the chairmans notorious bad taste in ties. with other audiences you mustnt attempt to cut in with humor as they will resent an outsider making disparaging remarks about their canteen or their chairman. you will be on safer ground if you stick to scapegoat like the post office or the telephone system.
if you feel awkward being humorous，you must practice so that it becomes more natural. include a few casual and apparently off_the_cuff remarks which you can deliver in a relaxed and unforced manner. often its the delivery which causes the audience to smile，so speak slowly and remember that a raised eyebrow or an unbelieving look may help to show that you are making a lighthearted remark.
look for the humor. it often comes from the unexpected. a twist on a familiar quote“if at first you dont succeed，give up”or a play on words or on a situation. search for exaggeration and understatements. look at your talk and pick out a few words or sentences which you can turn about and inject with humor.
the best title for the text may be .
[a]use humor effectively various kinds of humor
[c]add humor to speech
[d]different humor strategies[2002年45题]
a[正确答案]
2.隐蔽的主题题型
这类题型在设问时较为隐蔽，不像明确的主题题型会直接问“文章的主题是什么”，而且位置也很随意，不会固定在第一道或最后一道。下列例题即为隐蔽的主题题型经常出现的形式，考生应熟悉此类题型的语言形式，以利于审题时准确判断题型。
例
when it comes to the slowing economy，ellen spero isnt biting her nails just yet. but the 47_year_old manicurist isnt cutting，filing or polishing as many nails as shed like to，either. most of her clients spend $12 to $50 weekly，but last month two longtime customers suddenly stopped showing up. spero blames the softening economy.“im a good economic indicator，”she says，“i provide a service that people can do without when theyre concerned about saving some dollars.”so spero is downscaling，shopping at middle_brow dillards department store near her suburban cleveland home，instead of neiman marcus.“i dont know if other clients are going to abandon me，too.”she says.
even before alan greenspans admission that americas red_hot economy is cooling，lots of working folks had already seen signs of the slowdown themselves. from car dealerships to gap outlets，sales have been lagging for months as shoppers temper their spending. for retailers，who last year took in 24 percent of their revenue between thanksgiving and christmas，the cautious approach is coming at a crucial time. already，experts say，holiday sales are off 7 percent from last years pace. but dont sound any alarms just yet. consumers seem only mildly concerned，not panicked，and many say they remain optimistic about the economys long_term prospects even as they do some modest belt_tightening.
consumers say theyre not in despair because，despite the dreadful headlines，their own fortunes still feel pretty good. home prices are holding steady in most regions. in manhattan，“theres a new gold rush happening in the $4 million to $10 million range，predominantly fed by wall street bonuses，”says broker barbara corcoran. in san francisco，prices are still rising even as frenzied overbidding quiets.“instead of 20 to 30 offers，now maybe you only get two or three，says john tealdi，a bay area real_estate broker. and most folks still feel pretty comfortable about their ability to find and keep a job.
many folks see silver linings to this slowdown. potential home buyers would cheer for lower interest rates. employers wouldnt mind a litter fewer bubbles in the job market. many consumers seem to have been influenced by stock_market swings，which investors now view as a necessary ingredient to a sustained boom. diners might see an upside，too. getting a table at manhattans hot new alain ducasses restaurant used to be impossible. not anymore. for that，greenspan&co. may still be worth toasting.
to which of the following is the author likely to agree？
[a]a new boom，on the horizon. tighten the belt，the single remedy.
[c]caution all right，panic not.
[d]the more ventures，the more chance.[2004年55题]
c[正确答案] 三、态度原则
命题专家命题时，为了验证考生到底有没有读懂文章，会就整个文章或某个语言区域相对较为主观的态度设问。作者态度题有两种题型：
1.文章作者态度题
这种题目对考生而言难度较大，迷惑性也较强，因为命题专家是针对整篇文章设问，考生很难找到具体对应的语言点，所以要把握整篇文章。例如作者在谈一件事时是用反讽的口气，还是赞成的语气，此类题所给的答案选项一般是四个形容词，考生应在审题时就把握好这四个形容词所表达的意思，然后返回文章去寻找感觉。特别提醒考生要牢记所遇到的构成作者态度题选项的每一个形容词。
做文章作者态度题时，千万不要把考生自己的态度揉进文章中，同时要注意区分作者本人的态度与作者引用的观点态度。文章作者态度是作者说话的口气（tone），不是考某一个语言点，而是文章中数个语言点串起来的一根线给读者的整体感觉。
例
could the bad old days of economic decline be about to return？since opec agreed to supply_cuts in march，the price of crude oil has jumped to almost $26 a barrel，up from less than $10 last december. this near_tripling of oil prices calls up scary memories of the 1973 oil shock，when prices quadrupled，and 1979—1980，when they also almost tripled. both previous shocks resulted in double_digit inflation and global economic decline. so where are the headlines warning of gloom and doom this time？
the oil price was given another push up this week when iraq suspended oil exports. strengthening economic growth，at the same time as winter grips the northern hemisphere，could push the price higher still in the short term.
yet there are good reasons to expect the economic consequences now to be less severe than in the 1970s. in most countries the cost of crude oil now accounts for a smaller share of the price of petrol than it did in the 1970s. in europe，taxes account for up to four_fifths of the retail price，so even quite big changes in the price of crude have a more muted effect on pump prices than in the past.
rich economies are also less dependent on oil than they were，and so less sensitive to swings in the oil price. energy conservation，a shift to other fuels and a decline in the importance of heavy，energy_intensive industries have reduced oil consumption. software，consultancy and mobile telephones use far less oil than steel or car production. for each dollar of gdp（in constant prices）rich economies now use nearly 50% less oil than in 1973. the oecd estimates in its latest economic outlook that，if oil prices average $22 a barrel for a full year，compared with $13 in 1998，this would increase the oil import bill in rich economies by only 0.25%-0.5% of gdp. that is less than one_quarter of the income loss in 1974 or 1980. on the other hand，oil_importing emerging economies—to which heavy industry has shifted—have become more energy_intensive，and so could be more seriously squeezed.
one more reason not to lose sleep over the rise in oil prices is that，unlike the rises in the 1970s，it has not occurred against the backbone of general commodity_price inflation and global excess demand. a sizable portion of the world is only just emerging from economic decline. the economists commodity price index is broadly unchanging from a year ago. in 1973 commodity prices jumped by 70%，and in 1979 by almost 30%.
from the text we can see that the writer seems .
[a]optimistic sensitive
[c]gloomy
[d]scared[2002年55题]
a[正确答案]
2.局部作者态度题
此类题目考查考生对局部细节所体现出的作者态度的理解，因此做此类题时，考生不能再像前一种态度题一样去找“感觉”，而应当回到文章局部上，落到实处。
例
in the last half of the nineteenth century，“capital”and“labour”were enlarging and perfecting their rival organisations on modern lines. many an old firm was replaced by a limited liability company with a bureaucracy of salaried managers. the change met the technical requirements of the new age by engaging a large professional element and prevented the decline in efficiency that so commonly spoiled the fortunes of family firms in the second and third generation after the energetic founders. it was moreover a step away from individual initiative，towards collectivism and municipal and state_owned business. the railway companies，though still private business managed for the benefit of shareholders，were very unlike old family business！at the same time the great municipalities went into business to supply lighting，trams and other services to the taxpayers.
the growth of the limited liability company and municipal business had important consequences. such large，impersonal manipulation of capital and industry greatly increased the numbers and importance of shareholders as a class，an element in national life representing irresponsible wealth detached from the land and the duties of the landowners；and almost equally detached from the responsible management of business. all through the nineteenth century，america，africa，india，australia and parts of europe were being developed by british capital，and british shareholders were thus enriched by the worlds movement towards industrialisation. towns like bournemouth and eastbourne sprang up to house large“comfortable”classes who had retired on their incomes，and who had no relation to the rest of the community except that of drawing dividends and occasionally attending a shareholders meeting to dictate their orders to the management. on the other hand“shareholding”meant leisure and freedom which was used by many of the later victorians for the highest purpose of a great civilisation.
the“shareholders”as such had no knowledge of the lives，thoughts or needs of the workmen employed by the company in which they held shares，and their influence on the relations of capital and labour was not good. the paid manager acting for the company was in more direct relation with the men and their demands，but even he had seldom that familiar personal knowledge of the workmen which the employer had often had under the more patriarchal system of the old family business now passing away. indeed the mere size of operations and the numbers of workmen involved rendered such personal relations impossible. fortunately，however，the increasing power and organisation of the trade unions，at least in all skilled trades，enabled the workmen to meet on equal terms the managers of the companies who employed them. the cruel discipline of the strike and lockout taught the two parties to respect each others strength and understand the value of fair negotiation.
the author is most critical of .
[a]family firm owners landowners
[c]managers
[d]shareholders[1996年62题]
d[正确答案]
在谈到family firm owners时，作者只是说：“通过雇用一大批专业人员，这一变化适应了新时代的技术要求，防止了效率的下降。而效率的下降通常是家族公司在精力充沛的创立者之后的第二三代破产的原因。”这是很客观的表述，在谈到landowners时说：“对资本与企业的如此大规模的非个人运作大大增加了作为一个阶层的持股人的数量及地位的重要性。
国民生活中这一现象的出现代表了不由个人负责的财富与土地及土地所有者的义务的分离，这也在同样程度上意味着（不由个人负责的财富）与经营管理责任的分离。“也是很客观的表述，没有表明自己的态度。c选项在原文中有两处提及，但都是指带薪经理，对经理并没有进行任何批评性评论，因而也不符合题意。只有d选项对应原文中the”shareholders“as such had no knowledge of the lives，thoughts or needs of the workmen employed by the company in which he held shares，and his influence on the relations of capital and labour was not good.”像这样的‘持股人’对所持股票公司雇用的工人的生活，思想和需求一无所知，他对资本与劳工关系没有什么好的影响。“显然，作者对这种”持股人“持批判的态度，所以d是正确答案。实际上，1996年第62题命题也可以直接以下面的形式出现：
the authors attitude towards shareholders is.
[a]biasedpositive[c]sympathetic[d]critical 四、首段原则
首段原则应用于根据首段内容所设置的题目，它包括两种形式：首句原则和末句原则。
1.首句原则
回顾近几年的考研阅读题，细心的考生会发现历年考研试卷中都有题目针对首段第一句话设问，为什么会出现这种情况？原因很简单，考研阅读所选的文章均是议论文和说明文，此类文章的文体要求在首段提出观点、突出中心，因此第一段就好像全篇文章的一个总纲，确定了文章的主要内容，而第一句话常常是一个自然段的主题句，首段首句自然就成为常考且必考的一个考点。
例
it is said that in england death is pressing，in canada inevitable and in california optional. small wonder. americans life expectancy has nearly doubled over the past century. failing hips can be replaced，clinical depression controlled，cataracts removed in a 30_minute surgical procedure. such advances offer the aging population a quality of life that was unimaginable when i entered medicine 50 years ago. but not even a great health_care system can cure death—and our failure to confront that reality now threatens this greatness of ours.
what is implied in the first sentence？
[a]americans are better prepared for death than other people. americans enjoy a higher life quality than ever before.
[c]americans are over_confident of their medical technology.
[d]americans take a vain pride in their long life expectancy.[2003年56题]
c[正确答案]
2.末句原则
有时一个自然段的主题句也会出现在段末，因此考点也相应转向末句。
例
technically，any substance other than food that alters our bodily or mental functioning is a drug. many people mistakenly believe the term drug refers only to some sort of medicine or an illegal chemical taken by drug addicts. they dont realize that familiar substances such as alcohol and tobacco are also drugs. this is why the more neutral term substance is now used by many physicians and psychologists. the phrase“substance abuse”is often used instead of“drug abuse”to make clear that substances such as alcohol and tobacco can be just as harmfully misused as heroin and cocaine.
“substance abuse”is preferable to“drug abuse”in that.
[a]substance can alter our bodily or mental functioning if illegally used “drug abuse”is only related to a limited number or drug takers
[c]alcohol and tobacco are as fatal as heroin and cocaine
[d]many substances other than heroin or cocaine can also be poisonous[1997年59题]
d [正确答案] 五、段落原则
段落推断原则考查考生对段落内容的理解，分为两类题型：段落首句推断和段落中句子推断。针对这两种具体题型的原则为：先看首句，如与选项符合即可选择，不必再浪费时间看完整个段落，如首句不能与选项吻合时再将整个段落读完以寻找符合的选项。
1.段落首句推断
例
straitford president george friedman says he sees the online world as a kind of mutually reinforcing tool for both information collection and distribution，a spymasters dream. last week his firm was busy vacuuming up data bits from the far corners of the world and predicting a crisis in ukraine.“as soon as that report runs，well suddenly get 500 new internet sign_ups from ukraine，”says friedman，a former political science professor.“and well hear back from some of them.”open_source spying does have its risks，of course，since it can be difficult to tell good information from bad. thats where straitford earns its keep.
it can be learned from paragraph 4 that.
[a]straitfords prediction about ukraine has proved true straitfords guarantees the truthfulness of its information
[c]straitfords business is characterized by unpredictability
[d]straitford is able to provide fairly reliable information[2003年44题]
d[正确答案]
2.段落中句子推断
例
but it is hardly inevitable that companies on the web will need to resort to push strategies to make money. the examples of virtual vineyards，amazon.com，and other pioneers show that a web site selling the right kind of products with the right mix of interactivity，hospitality，and security will attract online customers. and the cost of computing power continues to free fall，which is a good sign for any enterprise setting up shop in silicon. people looking back 5 or 10 years from now may well wonder why so few companies took the online plunge.
we learn from the last paragraph that .
[a]pushing information on the web is essential to internet commerce interactivity，hospitality and security are important to online customers
[c]leading companies began to take the online plunge decades ago
[d]setting up shops in silicon is independent of the cost of computing power[1999年58题]
b [正确答案] 六、转折/对比原则
议论文和说明文都强调逻辑的严谨性，而转折和对比常常可以用来测试考生在这一方面的阅读理解能力，所以考生对文中的转折和对比关系应高度重视，只要看到标明转折或对比的关系词如but，however等，就应当立即在原文上进行圈点。一般说来转折后的内容多与上文所表达的意思相反，而对比往往是强调其中的一方。
1.首段的转折/对比
只要首段中出现一对处于对比状况的概念，命题专家通常都会就此设置考题，考生应掌握这一规律，在看到文章首段出现转折对比的内容时，应当立即集中注意力，同时还要明白，第一段出现转折关系时，转折后所表述的一定是文章的中心议题，而在首段出现的对照或对比的内容将在下文中进行具体的议论，并在文章最后得出结论。
例
few creations of big technology capture the imagination like giant dams. perhaps it is human kinds long suffering at the mercy of flood and drought that makes the ideal of forcing the waters to do our bidding so fascinating. but to be fascinated is also，sometimes，to be blind. several giant dam projects threaten to do more harm than good.
the third sentence of paragraph 1 implies that .（转折）
[a]people would be happy if they shut their eyes to reality the blind could be happier than the sighted
[c]over_excited people tend to neglect vital things
[d]fascination makes people lose their eyesight[1998年51题]
c[正确答案]
2.文中的转折
例
it is a remarkable record，stretching back over 70 years—yet the bbcs future is now in doubt.
the world famous bbc now faces .
[a]the problem of new coveragean uncertain prospect
[c]inquiries by the general public[d]shrinkage of audience[1996年55题]
b [正确答案]
